Waves after waves of Muslim armies invaded India and invariably defeated and subjugated the opposing Hindu forces. Mahmood Ghaznavi invaded India seventeen times. Qutbuddin Aibak established the first proper Muslim empire, the Slave Dynasty, towards the end of the twelfth century. This was perhaps the most outstanding incident in the annals of world history where meritocracy was taken to the highest extreme -one slave king handing over power to another slave, no relation at all. The Slave Dynasty was followed by another hundred-year rule of Khilji dynasty. Then came the Lodhis who were replaced in 1526 by Babur, a Mogul from Farghana in central Asia, who founded the Mogul empire which lasted 331 years till the British took over the state in 1857.

Source
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Qutb-ud-din Aibak [1150-1210]


Born to a Central Asia Turk family, Qutb-ud-din Aibak was captured and sold as a slave when he was a child. He was lucky to be purchased by the chief Qazi of Nishapur, who treated him like one of his own sons. Aibak received good education and was trained in the field of archery and horsemanship. However, when the master died, his sons, who were jealous of Aibak, sold him to a slave merchant. Fortune once again favored him and Muhammad Ghuri bought him.

Out of Ghuri's thousands of slaves, Aibak, because of his character and qualities, became one of his master's favorite. Aibak steadily rose through the ranks and eventually became a General. Like his owner Ghuri, Aibak performed his greatest deeds while still a subordinate. He was responsible for most of the conquests of Northern India and was appointed as Ghuri's Viceroy to Delhi. When Ghuri died in 1206, the Turkish Amirs and Generals elected Aibak as the new Sultan. It was he who shifted the capital first from Ghazni to Lahore, and then from Lahore to Delhi, and thus is considered as the first Muslim ruler of South Asia.

Aibak could not rule for long and died in 1210 after falling from a horse while playing polo. He is buried near the Anarkali Bazaar in Lahore, where a new tomb was constructed over his grave around 1970. Though his tenure as a ruler was only four years, and most of them were spend in dealing with the revolts of nobles like Taj-ud-din Ildiz, Nasir-ud-din Qubachah and a few Hindu chiefs, yet he established a firm administrative system. He restored peace and prosperity in the area under him and roads were free from thieves and robbers. He started the construction of Quwaat-al-Islam Mosque at Delhi. He also laid the foundation of the Qutb Minar, which was completed by his successor Iltutmush. Aibak was known as Lakh Baksh because of his generosity. He was also a pious Muslim. Historians have praised his evenhanded justice. He patronized Nizami and Fakh-i-Mudabbir, both of whom dedicated their works to Aibak.

His successors, who ruled India till 1290, were also slaves like him and the dynasty is known as the Slave Dynasty.

Shams-ud-din Iltutmush [1180-1236]


Iltutmush belonged to a noble family of the Ilbari Turks. His brothers became jealous of his intelligence and good looks and sold him to a slave dealer. After being sold and purchased a few times, he was bought by Sadr Jahn, the Qazi of Bukhara. It was there that he got good training and education. Later he was brought to Delhi where Aibak purchased him. Aibak, who realized the young slave's potential, treated him with kindness and appointed him as Sar-Jandar (Chief of Guards). Due to his hard work, he was first promoted as Amir-i-Shikar and then was promoted to the position of Amir of Gwalior. He also remained in-charge of the Bada'um. Aibak married his daughter to Iltutmush. When Aibak's son, Aram Shah, proved incompetent, the Turkish nobles chose Iltutmush as Sultan.

Iltutmush was a sensible and competent ruler. He welcomed the scholars, administrators and generals who had to leave their countries due to the Mongol invasions, and with their help he established a sound administration. He was a deeply religious man and had great respect for the saints. Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki was a famous saint of his period. Men like Fakh-i-Mudabbir and Minhaj-i-Siraj are considered as great historians of his time, while Taj-ul-Mulk earned great fame in the field of poetry. Iltutmush completed the construction of the Qutb Minar, which had been started by Aibak. He also constructed a mosque at Ajmer that is considered a masterpiece of architecture.

He was the first Muslim ruler of South Asia who introduced Arabic coinage and issued silver, the Tankah. He received a deed of investiture from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad, Mustansir Billah, in 1229. This increased his prestige. Iltutmush was a great monarch. He created a stable empire out of the newly conquered territories and protected it from internal opposition and external attacks. Nasir-ud-din Qubachah, one of the nobles of Ghuri, refused to recognize Iltutmush as Sultan and declared his independence. He occupied Uch, Multan and Lahore. Similarly, another Turkish noble Taj-ud-din Ildiz declared his independence in Ghazni. Iltutmush took immediate action and defeated both of them. In 1225 he conquered Bengal, where the Khalji ruler Husam-ud-din Iwaz had declared his independence. He also recaptured Rajputana, where many Hindu rulers had revolted against the central government.

Chengez Khan, following Jalal-ud-din Khwarizm, reached the Indus near Attock. Jalal-ud-din asked Iltutmush to allow him to take refuge in Delhi. By giving him refuge, Iltutmush did not want to annoy Chengez Khan. He politely refused Jalal-ud-din's request by writing him that the climate of Delhi would not suit him. So Jalal-ud-din left for Iran via Sindh. Thus Iltutmush saved the newly established Muslim State from the Mongols.

Iltutmush was also a great general and he extended the borders of the Muslim rule in South Asia. Following Qubachah, Iltutmush's forces entered the territories of Uch and captured them. He also defeated the Sumra, rulers of lower Sindh, and made the area part of his empire. In 1231, Iltutmush besieged the fortress of Gwalior. After a resistance of almost a year, Mangal Dev, the ruler of Gwalior, ran away from the battlefield and the Muslim forces occupied the city. In 1234, Iltutmush conquered Malwa, Bhilsa and Ujjain and managed to extend the southern limits of his empire to Narbad.

The real founder of the Sultanate of Delhi, Iltutmush, died a natural death in April 1236, after ruling for about 26 years.

Razia Sultana [1205-1240]



Daughter of Iltutmush, Razia Sultana was the first female Muslim ruler of South Asia. She was a talented, wise, just and generous woman. She was a great administrator and was well versed in governmental affairs. She was not only a good leader in the battlefield but herself was also an excellent fighter. As the most capable son of Iltutmush died during his own life, and the rest were incompetent to govern, Iltutmush nominated his daughter, Razia Sultana, as his successor on the throne of Delhi. Whenever Iltutmush had to leave his capital, he used to leave Razia Sultana in charge of the affairs in Delhi. But when Iltutmush died, Rukn-ud-din Firuz, one of his sons, occupied the throne and ruled for about seven months. Razia Sultana, with the support of the people of Delhi, secured the throne after defeating her brother in 1236.

Razia Sultana established complete law and order in her country. To rule the country, she abandoned her femininity and adopted a masculine getup. She used to dress as a man when appearing in public, be it in court or on the battlefield. She made an Ethiopian slave named Jalal-ud-din Yaqut her personal attendant and started trusting him the most. This challenged the monopoly of power claimed by the Turkish nobles.

The Turkish nobles resented having a woman as their ruler, especially when she started challenging their power. They began conspiring against her. In 1239, the Turkish governor of Lahore rebelled against Razia Sultana. However, when she marched against him, he first fled and then apologized. Then the governor of Bhatinda revolted. When Razia Sultana was trying to suppress the rebellion in Bhatinda, her own Turkish officers deposed her from the throne of Delhi and made her brother Bahram the Sultan. Razia Sultana married the governor of Bhatinda, Malik Altunia, and with his help tried to reoccupy the throne. She was defeated by the Turkish nobles and was compelled to flee away. A peasant who had offered her food and shelter while fleeing from an encounter killed her in her sleep. She died in 1240.

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban [1200-1287]

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban was born in a well-to-do Turk family of the Ilbari tribe. The Mongols captured him when he was a child. They sold him to Khwajah Jamal-ud-din Basri in Baghdad. Later he was brought to Delhi where Iltutmush purchased him. From the beginning he was in the good books of his master and eventually became one of the Chalgan, a group of the forty most important nobles of the court. During the rule of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, he became the most powerful amongst the Chalgan. While Nasir-ud-din spent most of his time engrossed in religious affairs, Balban was the real ruler. Nasir-ud-din married Balban's daughter, which made the latter even more powerful. After the death of Nasir-ud-din, Balban became the Sultan in early 1266.

Balban considered himself, the king, as the deputy of God on earth. He believed that the king should be very powerful so as to frighten everyone around him. He organized his court on the pattern of the courts of Irani kings. Nobody could even dare smile in his court. Smartly dressed well-built soldiers armed with unsheathed swords marched along beside him wherever he went. A number of rulers and princes who had taken refuge in his court were supposed to stand obediently in the court. Some ambassadors even used to faint when he entered his court. Balban established the department of intelligence. He spread his spies throughout the country and used them to gather information about all political developments and conspiracies. This helped him in taking action to stop trouble before it started.

As a Sultan, Balban adopted a blood and iron policy. He knew that during the twenty-year rule of Nasir-ud-din, the Chalgan had become very strong. Each one of them started to consider himself as a second to the Sultan. They did not like the growing power of Balban and were jealous of his ascent. After becoming Sultan, Balban decided to crush the power of the Chalgan. He had some murdered while others were banished to far off places.

When Balban ascended the throne, the Mewatis, Jats and Rajputs had become strong and often revolted against the government. The Mewatis lived near Delhi and had become so bold that they used to plunder the people living right outside the four walls of Delhi. When the royal forces were sent against them they took refuge in the jungles. Balban ordered his forces to crush them even if they had to completely destroy the forests.

During Nasir-ud-din's rule, the Mongols had advanced many times and plundered Lahore. In order to check the Mongol invasion, Balban built new forts and ordered the repair of the old ones between the river Indus and Delhi. He deployed the best of his troops on the northern borders to check the Mongols. His policies paid off, as he managed to stop the Mongol threat from advancing into his territories.

In the last days of Balban, Tughral Baig, the governor of Bengal, revolted against him. Bengal was far away from Delhi and the Sultan was very old. An army sent by Balban was defeated. In spite of his old age, Balban decided to lead an attack against the rebellion leader. He re-conquered Bengal and hanged thousands who took part in the revolt. He appointed his son Bughra Khan as the governor of Bengal and warned him that he would meet the same fate if he ever revolted against him.

The greatest setback for Balban in his entire life was the death of his favorite son, Prince Muhammad, during the war against the Mongols. He realized that without his son, the centralized monarchy that had been built up with such care was bound to dissolve again, as it had at the death of Iltutmush. This realization broke him. He never recovered from the death of Prince Muhammad and died in 1287.

In short Balban put the Muslim rule on firm footings. He completed the task started by Iltutmush. He made the Muslim rule in India so strong that it lasted in one form or the other till 1857.

Alauddin Khalji [1255-1316]



Alauddin Khalji was the son of Shahab-ud-din Khalji, and nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din Khalji, the founder of the Khalji rule in South Asia. When Jalal-ud-din ascended the throne, Alauddin was made Amir-i-Tuzk and later on Ariz-i-Mumalik. He was the most important general in the Sultan's army. In 1292, with Jalal-ud-din's blessings, he invaded Malwa and captured the town of Bhilsa. He then planned to conquer the South without the knowledge of Jalal-ud-din. He took his campaign to Deogir and Deccan. He captured the area and brought back enormous booty. When Jalal-ud-din heard of his nephew's success, he came out of Delhi to receive him. When the two of them were embracing each other, Alauddin killed his uncle and declared himself as the Sultan of Delhi in 1296. The picture of Alauddin Khalji that emerged from contemporary literature, i.e. the writings of Burni and Amir Khusraw, is that of a great monarch, the defender of the Muslim people and a brilliant general and administrator.

Alauddin was a great general and had planned on conquering the entire world like Alexander. But due to certain reasons, he did not manage to achieve his goal. However, he showed his capability as a general on many occasions. He collected a big army and enrolled all his soldiers and horses. The soldiers were given handsome salaries during his regime. The Mongol army of around one hundred thousand troops threatened the security of his empire from the north but he managed to deal with the problem and defeated the otherwise undefeatable Mongols. To do so he repaired the old forts and constructed new ones. He was also the first Muslim ruler of the Sub-continent to enter the southern part of India. No other Muslim ruler managed to penetrate the south as deeply as was done in the reign of Alauddin.

Alauddin considered his nobles to be the biggest hurdle in putting the administration of the country on firm footing. To check the rising powers of the nobles, he put many restrictions on them. This kept them occupied with their own problems and thus did not have the time or the means to revolt against him.

To put the economy of the country on the right track, Alauddin introduced land reforms. He withdrew all grants of land that could not be justified on the basis of service rendered to the state. Tax was increased on agricultural produce. He took steps to see that the peasants were justly treated and to reduce the role of middlemen. Alauddin introduced a four-point agenda to control prices of the items of daily use and to make the life of the common man more comfortable. He fixed the prices of all items, guaranteed the continued supply of all commodities, regulated distribution so that the needs of the people were met while stamping out monopoly, and lastly, established an efficient administration to ensure the smooth running of the system. Anybody found going against the system was severely punished. Alauddin died after a long illness on January 5, 1316. During his tenure, Delhi became a center of Muslim culture. Great poets such as Amir Khusraw and Amir Hasan Sijzi flourished during his era.

Muhammad bin Tughluq [1300-1351]



Born in a well-to-do family of Tughluq nobles, Fakhr-ud-din Muhammad Junna Khan, popularly known as Muhammad bin Tughluq, received the best education available. At a very young age he made an impression on Alauddin Khalji, who gave him the title of Akhur Baig in his court. Muhammad supported his father during his campaign against Khusraw and when the father became Sultan, he helped him in administrative affairs of the state. He became the Sultan in February/March 1325 after his father's accidental death.

Muhammad was without any doubt the most educated of all Muslim rulers who ruled Delhi. He had complete command over Persian, Arabic, Turkish and Sanskrit and could comprehend, speak and write all these languages. He was an authority on the subjects like Philosophy, Logic and Mathematics. He also had a good knowledge of Medicine. He started a number of hospitals in Delhi, where the patients were thoroughly looked after.

Muhammad was a deeply religious man and had learnt the Holy Quran by heart. He used to quote verses of the Quran during his conversations. He was a practicing Muslim who never missed his prayers and fasted regularly. During his regime, those who missed their prayers were severely punished. Besides being a pious man, he was also a just ruler. He was popularly known as Adil Sultan. One of the forts he constructed near Delhi was known as Adilabad. He used to listen to the complaints of his people twice a week and tried his best to remove them.

Muhammad was a genius and had a knack of making original plans. He issued copper coins instead of silver and golden coins. Introduction of token currency in those days was an excellent idea but some people started making fake coins in their homes. According to Burni, every house belonging to a Hindu was converted into a coin mint. The market was flooded with fake coins, which the merchants refused to take. In this situation, Sultan withdrew all copper coins and issued silver ones in their place. This caused a huge loss to the royal treasury.

It is generally believed that Muhammad made Deogir his capital instead of Delhi, and changed its name to Daullatabad. It is believed said that the Sultan ordered all the people of Delhi to shift to the new capital. But reliable sources of history prove that he only made Daullatabad his second metropolis so he could look after his southern provinces. He also transferred only a few of his government servants to the southern capital. Unfortunately for him, the government servants who were ordered to shift to the new city sabotaged his plans and created circumstances that compelled the Sultan to reverse his decision.

Muhammad also planned an expedition towards Khorasan. He raised an army of about 370,000 men. The political situation changed and due to his friendship with the new Iranian ruler Abu Said, he had to cancel his plan. This plan also caused heavy loss to the royal treasury. Sultan's idea of sending an expedition to Qarachal also failed due to heavy rainfall in the area. Communication of Tughluq troops was disrupted and thus majority of the soldiers sent by the Sultan lost their lives in the expedition.

To increase the revenue of his country, Muhammad increased taxes in the fertile land of the Doab. Bad luck was once again waiting for him, as the area had no rainfall that year. He did not make any reduction in the land revenue and the farmers revolted. They left their land and took refuge in the jungles. The fertile land became barren. When Muhammad came to know about the real situation, he compensated the farmers and gave them large amounts to rehabilitate their land. All of this resulted in further losses to the royal treasury.

Unfortunately many of his plans failed and resulted in the loss of money and decline in his popularity. Some historians believe that his plans were not impracticable, and his schemes failed due to misunderstandings and unfavorable conditions. They believe that he was born before his time. However, many of schemes were unpopular his subjects did not appreciate them.

Muhammad became sick at Thatta and passed away on March 20 1351. The most famous historian of his time, Zia-ud-din Burni had differences with him and many accounts of his rule based on Burni's work mostly present the negative picture of an important ruler in history.

Firuz Shah Tughluq [1300-1388]



Firuz Shah was the son of Rajab and cousin of Muhammad bin Tughluq. He spent his entire life under the supervision of Muhammad and Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq. When Muhammad bin Tughluq died, the nobles asked Firuz to take charge of the government affairs. Firuz hesitated and asked them to select somebody else but they insisted. His coronation as Sultan took place on March 23, 1351.

Firuz was least interested in war affairs. The death of Muhammad encouraged the rebels in Sindh, who started attacking the royal army. Instead of giving the rebels a fight, Firuz ordered his army to withdraw and come back to Delhi. The territory of Deccan also became independent during his reign. However, he conquered Jaj Nagar and Nagar Kot and annexed them to his kingdom.

Firuz is remembered as a Sultan who was most interested in the welfare of his people. He was of the view that a man can conquer by love and not by sword, and molded his actions to the same theory. In kindness and love, he was second to none amongst the Sultans of Delhi. He took a keen interest in training his 175,000 slaves. He was also interested in social reforms. He maintained an extensive system of poor relief, patronized learning and administered impartial justice. He constructed 40 mosques, 30 buildings for educational institutions, 100 hospitals, 100 public baths, 10 monumental pillars, 10 public wells, and 150 bridges. New cities like Hissar Firuza, Jaunpur and Firuzaba were also built during his reign.

For agriculture, Firuz dug canals from the rivers Jumna and Sutluj. These canals irrigated a large area of land. He dug new tanks to store water for agriculture purposes, and repaired older tanks prepared by Iltutmush and Alauddin Khalji. He took a special interest in gardening. He opened cloth factories in important cities that produced very fine quality cloth.

Firuz was a deeply religious man and had great respect for saints. He withdrew 22 taxes that were deemed to be against the spirit of Islam. He organized the distribution of booty according to Islamic laws. During his regime, men who claimed to be god, prophet or the mehdi were severely punished. He prohibited women from visiting the tombs of holy saints. He removed all pictures from the walls of the palaces and the court. He started eating in ordinary utensils instead of gold and silver.

In the last days of Firuz, his elder son Fateh Khan died. His son's death caused him to lose all interest in his own life. He retired from his job and handed over the reigns of power to his son, Muhammad Shan in 1387. He died of old age in 1388.

Amir Timur [1336-1405]



Timur was born in 1336, at a small town called Kesh, 50 miles south of Samarkand. A Chengezi Turk, he was the son of a minor chief who due to hard work and focused aims was able to become the ruler of a vast empire consisting of Transoxiana, a part of Turkistan, Afghanistan, Persia, Syria, Kurdistan and a major part of Asia Minor. The areas he conquered in his lifetime were only second to the conquests of Alexander.

As a young man he received a serious leg wound while stealing sheep, that resulted in a permanent limp. He was nicknamed Timur Leng (the lame), which ultimately became "Tamerlane". This handicap never hampered his ambitions. His aim was to become a conqueror of the caliber of Chengez Khan.

Timur's career was a combination of destruction and construction. On one hand he organized his army on the line of Mongols but on the other hand he left his administration in the hands of trained Muslim administrators. He would punish rebellions like Chengez Khan but would show a lot of respect for Muslim men of learning. Before destroying a beautiful peace of architecture, he would order sketches drawn, so that he could build its replica in his capital city of Samarkand.

After destroying the powers of Persia and Russia, Timur decided to invade India. His army initially entered India under the leadership of his grandson, Pir Muhammad Jehangir, in November 1397. This army managed to conquer Uch and Multan. In September of the following year, Timur himself came with a huge army 92,000 cavalrymen. He stormed though the areas that came in his way; Bhatnir, Sarsuti, Kaithal, Samana, Tughluqpur and Panipat. He finally reached Delhi. A weak Tughluq ruler, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, ruled Delhi at that time. Mahmud ran away after being defeated by Timur.

After conquering Delhi, Timur announced general amnesty. It was only after the murder of a few of the Timur's soldiers at the hands of the local people, that he ordered a general massacre of locals and the plundering of Delhi. After looting Delhi for several days, Timur decided to go back. On his way back, he captured Jammu and Punjab. He made Khizar Khan his governor of Multan, Lahore and Dipalpur and left the area before the arrival of summer in March 1399. The booty acquired by Timur's soldiers included rubies, diamonds, garnets, pearls, vessels of gold and silver, silk, brocade and ornaments.

Against advise, he embarked on a grand conquest of China in January 1405. His age caught up with him and he became seriously ill. He was carried back to Samarkand, where he died in February, the same year.

Babur - The First Mughal Emperor [1526-30]



Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur founded the Mughal Empire in India after defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the Battle of Panipat in 1526.

At the age of 14, Babur ascended the throne of the Central Asian kingdom of Farghana. His greatest ambition was to rule Samarkand. He fought many battles in the pursuit of this goal, winning and losing his kingdom many times in the process. In 1504, he ventured into what is now Afghanistan and conquered Kabul.

His position in Central Asia was precarious at best. In order to consolidate his rule, he invaded India five times, crossing the River Indus each time. The fifth expedition resulted in his encounter with Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat in April 1526. Babur's army was better equipped than Lodhi's; he had guns while the sultan relied on elephants. The most successful of Babur's innovations was the introduction of gunpowder, which had never been used before in the Sub-continent. This combined with Babur's newer tactics gave him a greater advantage. Babur's strategy won the war and Ibrahim Lodhi died fighting.

Panipat was merely the beginning of the Mughal rule. Akbar laid its real foundation in 1556. At the time of the battle of Panipat, the political power in India was shared by the Afghans and the Rajputs. After Panipat, the Hindu princes united under Rana Sanga, the Raja of Mewar, resulting in a sizable force. Babur's army showed signs of panic at the size of the huge opposing army. To prevent his forces retreat, Babur tried to instill confidence in his soldiers by breaking all his drinking cups and vessels, and vowed never to drink again if he won. His soldiers took heart, and when the armies met in the battle at Kanwaha, near Agra on March 16, 1527, Babur was able to win decisively. Kanwaha confirmed and completed Babur's victory at Panipat. Babur thus became the king of Central India.

Humayun [1508-1556]



Humayun "The Fortunate" was the eldest son of Babur. He had three younger brothers, Kamran, Askari and Hindal. Born on March 6, 1508, at Kabul, he learnt Turkish, Arabic and Persian at a very young age. He assisted his father in the governance of the country. In 1520, he was appointed the Governor of Badakshan at the age of 12 years. When Babur invaded India in 1526, Humayun joined him with a contingent from Badakshan. Humayun won a maiden victory in this campaign. He also led contingents under his father's rule against various Afghan insurgents, as well as participating in the battle of Kanwaha. After Babur's death in 1530, he was chosen as his successor. Humayun ascended the throne at Agra on December 30, 1530, at the age of 23, four days after his father's death.

Humayun inherited an empire barely held together by force of arms. It lacked a consolidated civil administration. He faced numerous problems right from the start. He faced troubles from the Afghan nobles, the Rajputs, and most of all from his brothers who were mean and disloyal to him. Unable to judge the growing power of Sher Shah, Humayun was defeated in the battle of Kanauj in 1540. He became a fugitive and escaped towards Iran via Sindh.

While in Sindh, he married a young Persian girl, Hamida Bano, who joined him in his wanderings. A year later in Umerkot in upper Sindh, his first son Akbar was born. Legend has it that Humayun had nothing to give to his followers at this happy occasion except some musk. The musk was broken into pieces and passed among his men. He is reported to have said that one day the fame of the prince would spread like the smell of the musk.

For a period of 15 years, the Mughal Empire lay dormant and Sher Shah founded the Suri Dynasty. However, in 1555 Humayun returned once again, and by his sheer perseverance, was able to recover his kingdom.

Although lacking his father's abilities, Humayun was a cultivated gentleman. He was unrivalled in the science of astrology and mathematics. Mild and benevolent in character, he was very kind towards his brothers; and despite their treachery, forgave them again and again. He possessed a very charitable and magnificent personality.

Although Humayun had recovered his kingdom, he was not destined to rule it for long. In January 1556, he met his tragic end by slipping from the famous building known as Din Panah.


Humayun''s tomb - built by the Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas under the supervision of Humayun''s Queen, Hamida Banu Begum

Sher Shah Suri [1472-1545]


Sher Shah Suri, "The Lion King", founder of the Suri Dynasty, was born in 1472 in Punjab. His original name was Farid. He was the son of a petty Afghan Jagirdar. Ill-treated by his stepmother, he left home at an early age. He went to Jaunpur where he set himself to serious study and there he acquired good command over the Arabic and Persian languages. Because of his abilities, he was soon appointed by his father to manage the family Jagir. But again because of his stepmother, he left his father's Jagir and went to Bihar where he later joined the service of Babur.

Seeing the weaknesses in the Mughal rule and military organization, Sher Shah took advantage of the problems faced by Humayun. Eventually he managed to overthrow the Mughal rulers. His reign barely spanned five years, but is a landmark in the history of the Sub-continent. With his deep knowledge and practical experience, he made many brilliant additions and improvements to the existent system. Sher Shah was a capable military and civilian administrator. He set up reforms in various areas. Akbar later built on these reforms and extended them further. Many of these reforms pertained to the army, but the principal reforms for which he is remembered are those connected with revenue administration. Numerous civil works were carried out during his short reign.

Sher Shah ruled for a short period of five years in which he not only consolidated his power but also brought about important reforms. He died in 1545 from a gunpowder explosion. He was a practical and farsighted ruler who was way ahead of his contemporaries. He is remembered in history for the numerous reforms that he undertook to strengthen the government. He was in truth the greatest ruler that sat upon the throne of Delhi.

Akbar [1542-1605]



Akbar "The Great" was one of the greatest rulers in Indian history. He was born when Humayun and his first wife, Hamida Bano, were fugitives escaping towards Iran. It was during these wanderings that Akbar was born in Umerkot, Sindh, on November 23, 1542. Legend has it that Humayun prophesied a bright future for his son, and thus accordingly, named him Akbar.

Akbar was raised in the rugged country of Afghanistan rather than amongst the splendor of the Delhi court. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight and never found time to read or write. He was the only great Mughal ruler who was illiterate. Despite this, he had a great desire for knowledge. This led him not only to maintain an extensive library but also to learn. Akbar had his books read out to him by his courtiers. Therefore, even though unable to read, Akbar was as knowledgeable as the most learned of scholars. Akbar came to throne in 1556, after the death of his father, Humayun. At that time, Akbar was only 13 years old. Akbar was the only Mughal king to ascend to the throne without the customary war of succession; as his brother Muhammad Hakim was too feeble to offer any resistance. During the first five years of his rule, Akbar was assisted and advised by Bahram Khan in running the affairs of the country. Bahram Khan was, however, removed and for a few years Akbar ruled under the influence of his nurse Maham Anga. After 1562, Akbar freed himself from external influences and ruled supreme.During his reign, Akbar managed to subdue almost all of India, with the remaining areas becoming tributary states. Along with his military conquests, he introduced a series of reforms to consolidate his power. Akbar practiced tolerance aimed at Hindu-Muslim unification through the introduction of a new religion known as Din-i-Ilahi. He appointed nobles and mansabdars without any religious prejudice. Akbar's religious innovations and policies, and deviation from Islamic dogma, have been a source of debate and controversy. Akbar was a great patron of literary works and scholars. His court had numerous scholars of the day who are well known as "Nauratan". Akbar had three sons Prince Salim, Murad and Daniyal. Prince Murad and Daniyal died in their prime during their father's lifetime. However, Akbar faced problems with Prince Salim and the last four years of Akbar's life were consumed in crushing Salim's rebellion. Akbar fell ill and died of slow poisoning on October 27, 1605. With him ended the most glorious epoch in Indian history.


Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of the People) Agra Fort

Mujaddid Alf Sani [1564-1624]

he first of the great reformers, Sheikh Ahmad Sarhindi al-Farooqi an-Naqshbandi, was born in Sarhind on June 26, 1564. He belonged to a devout Muslim family that claimed descent from Hazrat Umar Farooq (RA). His father Sheikh Abdul Ahad was a well-known sufi of his times. Sheikh Ahmad received his basic education at home. His initial instructions in the Holy Quran, Hadith and theology were rendered in Sarhind and Sialkot. Later, he devoted most of his time to the study of Hadith, Tafseer and philosophy. He worked for some time in Lahore as well. But the greater part of his life was spent in Sarhind, where he was to become the champion of Islamic values. It was not until he was 36 years old that he went to Delhi and joined the Naqshbandiya Silsilah under the discipleship of Khawaja Baqi Billah.

During this period the Muslims in India had become so deficient in the knowledge of true Islam that they had more belief in Karamat or miracles of the saints than Islamic teachings. The Ulema and theologians of the time had ceased to refer to the Quran and Hadith in their commentaries, and considered jurisprudence the only religious knowledge. Akbar, the Mughal king had started a series of experiments with Islam, propagating his own religion Din-i-Ilahi, an amalgamation of Hindu and Muslim beliefs. In these circumstances, Sheikh Ahmad set upon himself the task of purifying the Muslim society. His aim was to rid Islam of the accretions of Hindu Pantheism. He was highly critical of the philosophy of Wahdat-ul Wujud, against which he gave his philosophy of Wahdat-ush-Shuhud.

He entered into correspondence with Muslim scholars and clerics and laid stress on following the true contours of Islam. To him, mysticism without Shariah was misleading. He stressed the importance of Namaz and fasting. Through preaching, discussions and his maktubat addressed to important nobles and leaders of religious thought, he spread his message amongst the elite in particular. As he and his followers also worked in the imperial camp and army, he was soon noticed by Jehangir. Jehangir, unlike his father, was a more orthodox Muslim. But he still insisted on full prostration by all his subjects. Sheikh Ahmad refused to prostrate before him, as result of which he was imprisoned at Gwalior Fort for two years until the Emperor realized his mistake. Jehangir then not only released Sheikh Ahmad, but also recalled him to Agra. Jehangir thereafter retracted all un-Islamic laws implemented by Akbar.

Sheikh Ahmad's greatest contribution was undoubtedly the task of countering unorthodox Sufism and mystic beliefs. He organized the Naqshbandiya order to reform the society and spread the Shariah among the people. He wrote many books, including his famous works, Isbat-ul-Nabat and Risal-i-Nabuwat. His greatest work on Islamic philosophy was the Tauheed-i-Shuhudi. Sheikh Ahmad continued preaching Islam till the end of his days. He urged people to adhere to the accepted and clearly laid down path of Islam. He passed away in 1624.

Jehangir [1569-1627]



Prince Muhammad Salim was the eldest son of Akbar. He was born in August 1569, after many prayers and blessings of the saints. Therefore, Akbar ensured that his son receive the best education possible. Salim started his studies at the age of four and was taught Persian, Arabic, Hindi, history, arithmetic, geography and other sciences by important tutors like Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana.

Prince Salim succeeded to the throne on the eighth day after his father's death. He took the name Jehangir and started his 22 years reign at the age of 36. Having seized power, he had to fend off his own son Khusraw's claim to the throne. Khusraw was defeated and as a punishment, his eyes were taken out.

Jehangir started his reign with several popular acts. He released prisoners of war, promised to protect Islam and granted general amnesty to his opponents. He set up a "Chain of Justice" outside his palace. Anyone in trouble could simply pull the chain and receive a hearing from the Emperor. Jehangir married the extremely beautiful and intelligent Mehr-un-Nisa in May 1611, which is in itself a story of romance and intrigue. Mehr-un-Nisa was given the title of Nur Jehan on her marriage to Jehangir. Jehangir was fond of ease and comfort. He was an alcohol addict and could be found day and night with wine goblets in his hands. He was also susceptible to the influence of others, a weakness exploited by many. Because of his inebriated state, Nur Jehan came to be the actual power behind the throne.

It was during Jehangir's reign that the British got formal permission to trade freely in the Mughal Empire. This was his greatest blunder for these traders went on to become the rulers of the Sub-continent.

Jehangir was a good writer and loved nature. He recorded all sorts of wildlife in his book Tuzk-i-Jehangiri. He liked paintings and collected many of them in his palace. Some of them are still found in museums. He died in 1627 and was buried in Shahdra, near Lahore. His great mausoleum is still present and is a popular tourist attraction.

Nur Jehan [1577-1643]


Nur Jehan was the daughter of a Persian immigrant, Mirza Ghiyas Baig of Tehran. Before becoming the beloved wife of the Mughal emperor Jehangir, she was the widow of a Mughal officer, Sher Afghan Quli Khan.

Mehr-un-Nisa, entitled Nur Jehan, was born when her parents were migrating to the Sub-continent in the 16th century. She received her early education in Quran and the Persian language and had a special flare for poetry.

Her father came to the Sub-continent during the time of the Mughal emperor, Akbar, and entered into his service. He rose rapidly by sheer merit. In 1607, Nur Jehan was brought to the court as royal ward. She was beautiful and highly intelligent and attracted Jehangir's attention.

A good deal of fiction has gathered round this remarkable woman, obscuring her personality and role in the social and political life of this period. It is wrongly and widely believed that Jehangir murdered Sher Afghan, Nur Jehan's first husband, because he wanted to marry Nur Jehan. In actuality, he died in a skirmish in 1607. The conqueror of the world, Jehangir fell in love with Nur Jehan and married her in 1611. He gave her the title of Nur Mehal, "Light of the Palace" and later Nur Jehan, "Light of the World".

After marriage, Nur Jehan won Jehangir's complete confidence. She carefully attended to the affairs of the state. Her father and brother became ministers and together they dominated the courts. A number of historians believe that Nur Jehan became the real power behind the throne and practically the sovereign of the Mughal Empire. For many years she wielded the imperial powers. She even gave audiences at her palace and her name was placed on the coinage.

Nur Jehan influenced a large number of brilliant soldiers, scholars and poets from Iran, who subsequently played an important role in the administration and in the development of the cultural life of Mughal Empire.

The decision to marry her daughter from her first husband, to Shah Jehan's younger brother Shahryar, and her consequent support to his candidature to the throne caused Shah Jehan's rebellion. Emperor Jehangir was captured by rebels in 1626 while he was on his way to Kashmir. Nur Jehan intervened to get her husband released. Jehangir was rescued but died on October 28, 1627.

Nur Jehan had a magnificent tomb erected over the grave of her husband. She retired from the world and lived a quiet and lonely life for 16 years after the death of Jehangir. She died in 1643, and is buried besides Jehangir at Shahdra, Lahore.

Shah Jehan [1592-1666]


Shah Jehan was one of Jehangir's four sons. Born in 1592 in Lahore, his parents named him Khurram. He was smart, intelligent, and ambitious. He proved himself a great military commander and an able provincial governor during his father's lifetime.

Shah Jehan came to the throne after a bloody war of succession. When Jehangir died, only two of his sons, Shahryar and Shah Jehan were alive. Shahryar, who was also Nur Jehan's son-in-law, was seriously sick at the time. Despite this, Nur Jehan sought vainly to have him ascend to the throne. However, Shah Jehan, with the aid of his father-in-law, was able to seize power. He was the first Mughal to finish off his nearest relatives, including brothers and half-brothers, in order to come to power. Shah Jehan ruled for three decades. After becoming emperor in 1628, he found no difficulty in successfully ruling over the vast Mughal Empire. He was an ambitious ruler like his grandfather, Akbar. Shah Jehan chose honest people to be his governors and commanders in the army. He warned them to be fair in their dealing with the people. He is known in history as Shahinshah-i-Adil, or the "Just Emperor". He worked long hours and kept an eye on every detail of administration of the Empire. He made the roads safe for travelers, severely punishing looters and robbers. He developed agriculture and improved trade with foreign countries. The result was that people became rich and the state revenue increased manifold.Shah Jehan is renowned for his beautiful gardens. But besides developing famous gardens, he made full use of the royal treasury on state buildings like schools, hospitals, and mosques. Shah Jehan's numerous grand and beautiful buildings standout to this day. The most famous among the grand buildings is the Taj Mehal at Agra, in present-day India. It was built in memory of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mehal. It took over 15 years to complete and cost 90 million rupees. The Taj Mehal is deemed to be one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It is a noble monument of conjugal love and fidelity. According to Rabindra Nath Tagore, it is a "tear on the cheek of eternity".

In September 1657, Shah Jehan fell ill. The physicians were not hopeful about his recovery. He even made his last will and testament. As soon as the news of his illness reached his four sons, Dara Shikoh, Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad, they all started making preparations to capture the throne. Aurangzeb who succeeded in his efforts, kept his aged father imprisoned until his death, allowing one of his sisters to look after him. Shah Jehan died in 1666. He was laid to rest beside his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mehal.


The Jama Masjid, Delhi; built by Shah Jehan

Aurangzeb Alamgir [1618-1707]



Aurangzeb was born on October 21, 1618. He was the third son of the emperor Shah Jehan. Though younger than his two brothers, Dara Shikoh and Shuja, he was by far their superior in competence and character. He was industrious and thorough in his far-sightedness. Even as a prince, he had distinguished himself as an able administrator. He was also a great scholar of the Persian, Arabic and Hindi languages.

Being the eldest, Dara Shikoh was favored by his parents for succession. Aurangzeb was third in line. He challenged the rule of his father and the succession of Dara Shikoh. He was eventually victorious in the battles that occurred between him and his brothers, and in July 1658, he ascended the throne as Alamgir, and reigned supreme till 1707. His reign matched that of Akbar's for longevity.

Aurangzeb was a religious man who believed in simple living. He was the only great Mughal who did not build mighty buildings. He did, however, build a mosque in Lahore, the Badshahi Mosque. Since Aurangzeb believed that Islam did not allow any one to listen to music, he banished all the court musicians, dancers and singers during his reign. During his 50 years of rule, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his ambition of bringing the entire Sub-continent under one rule. It was under him that the Mughal Empire reached its peak in matter of area. He worked hard for years but his health broke down in the end. Throughout his life he lived and worked as a simple and honest Muslim. He earned his living by sewing caps and copying the Holy Quran in his spare time. He left behind no personal wealth when he died in 1707, at the age of 90 years.

Badshahi Mosque, Lahore

Shah Wali Ullah [1703-1762]


Shah Wali Ullah Muhaddis Dehlvi was born on February 21, 1703 at Delhi, just when the reign of Aurangzeb was nearing its end. He was named Qutb-ud-Din, but is better known by his title of Wali Ullah, given to him by virtue of his goodness and piety. His father, Shah Abdul Rahim, was a sufi and theologian of great repute. He was the founding member and teacher of the Madrasa-i-Rahimiyah in Delhi. Shah Abdul Rahim was associated with the completion of the famous Islamic legal text, Fatawa-i-Alamgiri.

Shah Wali Ullah received his academic and spiritual education from his father. He memorized the Holy Quran and gained knowledge of Tafseer, Hadith, spiritualism, mysticism, metaphysics, logic, and Ilm-ul-Kalam while still in his boyhood. After mastering these subjects, he turned his attention to the Sahih Bukhari and Islamic Jurisprudence. He also studied medicine and tibb. After acquiring this knowledge, he taught at his father's Madrasa for 12 years. He left for Arabia in 1730 for higher education. During his stay in Arabia, he was influenced by Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim, a renowned scholar of the time. He studied in Medina for 14 years, where he obtained his Sanad in Hadith. It is believed that while Shah Wali Ullah was in Arabia, he was blessed with a vision of the Holy Prophet (SAW), and tidings that he would be influential in organizing the reform of Muslims in India.

By the time he returned to Delhi in July 1732, the decline in Mughal fortunes had started. The social, political, economic and religious conditions of the Muslims were very poor. On his return to India, he not only identified the causes for the decline of the Muslims, but also pointed out the remedies. Shah Wali Ullah believed that the various problems Muslims faced were due to their ignorance about Islam and the Holy Quran. He, therefore, personally trained a number of students who were entrusted with the task of spreading Islam. In order to promulgate the teachings of Islam and make the Holy Quran more accessible to the people, he translated the Quran to Persian, the main and common language of the people at that time. He also tried to reduce the various differences of many a sectarian group prevailing at that time.

Shah Wali Ullah was a prolific writer and wrote extensively on Fiqh and Hadith. He eventually wrote 51 books; 23 in Arabic and 28 in Persian. Among his famous works are the Hujjat-ullah-il-Balighah and Izalat-ul-Khifa.

Shah Wali Ullah also made efforts for the political uplift of Muslims of India. He wrote to Ahmad Shah Abdali to help the Muslims of India in crushing the Marhattas, who were a constant threat to the crumbling Mughal Empire. In 1761, Ahmad Shah Abdali, in response to Shah Wali Ullah's call, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Marhattas at Panipat. Shah Wali Ullah was responsible for awakening in the community the desire to regain its moral fervor and maintain its purity. He was laid to rest in 1762. His sons and followers ably continued his work and noble mission.

Haider Ali [1722-1782]



Haider Ali was born in 1722 and was the son of Fateh Mohammad, a Punjabi adventurer, who traced his lineage to the family of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.). Haider Ali rose from poverty and came to notice of the ruler of Mysore as a brave soldier. In 1755, he became the Faujdar, or the Military Commander, and Jagirdar of Budikot in Mysore.

Though uneducated, Haider Ali displayed robust common sense, courage and determination, taking full advantage of every opportunity that came his way. Haider Ali copied the army organization and equipment of the English and the French. Charge of the whole army was entrusted to him in 1757 when the Marhattas attacked Mysore and the internal position of the state was in chaos. He rose to the occasion and forced the Marhattas to withdraw. The Maharaja gave him the title of Fateh Bahadur. In 1761, he rose to the position of Chief Minister of Mysore and continued to strengthen his power. By 1766, the Hindu ruler of Mysore was the head merely in name, while Haider Ali assumed unquestioned control. When the Raja died in 1766, Haider Ali became the actual ruler.

Haider Ali discharged his responsibilities with great ability and not only overcame the chaos within the state, but also took advantage of the prevailing anarchy in the south, adding fresh territory to Mysore and greatly extending its area. The Marhattas and the Nizam of Hyderabad, who continued to cause trouble for him, viewed the rise of Mysore with anxiety. His entire reign was almost taken up with military campaigns against the Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab of Karnatic and the Marhattas who claimed Mysore to be part of their dominion. Both the Marhattas and the Nizam of Hyderabad on numerous occasions sided with the British in joint attacks on Mysore. In 1767, the British, in alliance with Hyderabad and the Marhattas, took the field against Haider Ali. In the first Mysore War, after some initial reverses, Haider Ali was able to defeat the British. Haider Ali took his army to the outskirts of Madras and dictated peace to the British. According to the peace treaty between Haider Ali and the British, it was arranged that mutual assistance would be provided in case of attack on either side.

However, the British refused to help Haider Ali when the Marhattas attacked Mysore in 1771. Angered by the British refusal to honor a defensive alliance and finding more support from the French in terms of his military demands, he sided with the French. So in 1780, when the English wanted to attack the French at Mahe situated on the west coast of Mysore, Haider Ali did not permit it. In return the English declared war against Haider Ali by forming an alliance with the Nizam and the Marhattas, and thus stared the Second Mysore War.

Haider Ali fought bravely and skillfully with 80,000 men and 100 guns attacking Karnatic. In October 1780 he captured Arcot. Haider Ali boldly continued the war with the British. But in 1781, he was defeated near Madras by Eyre Coote. Haider died a year later in the midst of a campaign but his son, Tipu Sultan, continued the campaign and secured victory over the British in 1783. Like Haider Ali, Tipu also proved to be one of the most formidable rivals the British ever encountered in India.

Haider Ali was a born soldier .He suffered repeated reverses yet he never despaired. Haider Ali never raised a cloud of enemies against himself. It was due to his diplomatic skills that Haider Ali's enemies never combined against him; he would not fight the British unless he was on good terms with the Marhattas, and he would not go to war with the Marhattas unless he was confident that the British would not join them. Haider Ali was a man of caliber who fought and was killed not submitting to a foreign power. Apart from being a strong willed soldier and ruler, he was also a successful administrator. He was tolerant to other faiths. He carried on numerous public works and construction of a number of roads, gardens and fortification in Bangalore and Seringapatam are credited to his reign.

Tipu Sultan [1750-1799]



Tipu Sultan, the eldest son of Haider Ali, was born on December 10, 1750 at Devanhalli. Right from his early years he was trained in the art of warfare and at the age of 15 he used to accompany his father Haider Ali, the ruler of Mysore, to different military campaigns. In Addition, he also learnt different languages, mathematics and science. Tipu Sultan had a fascination for learning. His personal library consisted of more than 2,000 books in different languages. He was an extremely active man and worked hard for the welfare of his subjects. He took over the kingdom of Mysore after the death of his father in 1782, who died of a carbuncle in the midst of a campaign against the British. He continued fighting the British and defeated them in 1783.

Tipu Sultan was a farsighted person who could foresee East India Company's design to get entrenched in India. He therefore negotiated with the French for help and also sought assistance from the Amir of Afghanistan and the Sultan of Turkey. The British were scared of Tipu's growing strength and after their defeat in 1783 they formed an alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad and Marhattas. The French, however, deserted Tipu after the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. The British availed the chance with the help of the Nizam and the Marathas, and started the third Anglo-Mysore war in 1790.

As long as the British fought alone, Tipu always defeated them. But he could not come over their diplomacy, conspiracy and intrigue. Thus he was defeated in his capital, Seringapatam, and was forced to sign a humiliating treaty on March 22, 1792. As a result he had to concede half of his kingdom and pay an indemnity of 33 million rupees to the British and their allies. The alliance between the adversaries was soon broken and in 1795 the British, after defeating the Nizam, once again turned their attention towards Mysore. After the treaty at Seringapatam, Tipu Sultan did not waste his time and made extensive preparations against the British. He had rebuilt his war machine in the shortest possible time with the help of the French. The British regarded it as a violation of the treaty. This led to the start of the fourth Anglo-Mysore war in 1798 with the help of the Nizam. The French were unable to provide the needed support to Tipu Sultan. Tipu Sultan retreated to his capital and continued fighting till he breathed his last in May 1799. Tipu Sultan is buried at a mausoleum that he himself had built, along with his father Haider Ali and his mother Fatima Begum.

Tipu Sultan was a great patriot and like his father realized the danger of letting the British becoming stronger. Although much of the period of his rule was given to war with the Marhattas, the Nizam and the British, he made his state secure and peaceful with benevolent rule. He was an enlightened ruler who treated his non-Muslim subjects generously. He built a chain of excellent roads and constructed tanks and dams to promote agriculture. He introduced new industries, promoted trade and commerce on a large scale. Tipu prohibited the production and distribution of liquor and other intoxicants in Mysore. He also built and fortified numerous forts and many palaces, which were demolished by the British after his death. Bangalore Summer Palace still survives and is a remnant of his grand rule.

Bahadur Shah Zafar [1775-1862]

A plaque proclaiming the end of the Mughal Dynasty


The last Mughal king, Bahadur Shah, better known as Bahadur Shah Zafar, was born in 1775 at Delhi. He was the son of Akbar Shah from his Hindu wife Lalbai. Bahadur Shah, after the death of his father, was placed on the throne in 1837 when he was little over 60 years of age. He was last in the lineage of Mughal emperors who ruled over India for about 300 years. Bahadur Shah Zafar, like his predecessors, was a weak ruler who came to throne when the British domination over India was strengthening and the Mughal rule was nearing its end. The British had curtailed the power and privileges of the Mughal rulers to such an extent that by the time of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the Mughal rule was confined to the Red Fort. Bahadur Shah Zafar was obliged to live on British pension, while the reins of real power lay in the hands of the East India Company.

During the reign of Bahadur Shah Zafar, Urdu poetry flourished and reached its zenith. He himself was a prolific poet and an accomplished calligrapher. He had acquired his poetic taste from his grandfather and father who were also poets. He passed most of his time in the company of poets and writers and was the author of four diwans. Love and mysticism were his favorite subjects that found expression in his poetry. Most of his poetry is full of pain and sorrow owing to the distress and degradation he had to face at the hands of the British. He was a great patron of poetry and literary work and some of the most eminent and famous Urdu poets like Mirza Ghalib, Zauk, Momin and Daagh were of his time.

It was at the time of Bahadur Shah that the War of Independence in 1857 started. In Bahadur Shah Zafar the freedom fighters found the symbol of freedom and therefore nominated him as their Commander-in-Chief. In the initial stages, the freedom fighters were successful, but later on the strong and organized British forces defeated them. Bahadur Shah, who had been proclaimed as an emperor of whole of India, was overthrown. He was arrested from Humayun's tomb, in Delhi, where he was hiding with his three sons and a grandson. Captain Hodson killed his sons and grandson and their severed heads were brought before him. Bahadur Shah Zafar himself was tried for treachery. He was exiled to Rangoon (now Yangon), Burma (now Myanmar), in 1858 where he lived his last five years and died in 1862 at the age of 87.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan [1817-1898]



The greatest Muslim reformer and statesman of the 19th Century, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was born in Delhi on October 17, 1817. His family on the maternal and paternal side had close contacts with the Mughal court. His maternal grandfather, Khwajah Farid was a Wazir in the court of Akbar Shah II. His paternal grandfather Syed Hadi held a mansab and the title of Jawwad Ali Khan in the court of Alamgir II. His father, Mir Muttaqi, had been close to Akbar Shah since the days of his prince-hood. Syed Ahmad's mother, Aziz-un-Nisa, took a great deal of interest in the education and upbringing of her son. She imposed a rigid discipline on him and Sir Syed himself admitted that her supervision counted for much in the formation of his character.

The early years of Sir Syed's life were spent in the atmosphere of the family of a Mughal noble. There was nothing in young Syed's habits or behavior to suggest that he was different from other boys, though he was distinguished on account of his extraordinary physique. As a boy he learnt swimming and archery, which were favorite sports of the well-to-do class in those days.

Sir Syed received his education under the old system. He learnt to read the Quran under a female teacher at his home. After this, he was put in the charge of Maulvi Hamid-ud-Din, the first of his private tutors. Having completed a course in Persian and Arabic, he took to the study of mathematics, which was a favorite subject of the maternal side of his family. He later became interested in medicine and studied some well-known books on the subject. However, he soon gave it up without completing the full course. At the age of 18 or 19 his formal education came to an end but he continued his studies privately. He started taking a keen interest in the literary gatherings and cultural activities of the city.

The death of his father in 1838 left the family in difficulties. Thus young Syed was compelled at the early age of 21 to look for a career. He decided to enter the service of the East India Company. He started his career as Sarishtedar in a court of law. He became Naib Munshi in 1839 and Munshi in 1841. In 1858 he was promoted and appointed as Sadar-us-Sadur at Muradabad. In 1867 he was promoted and posted as the judge of the Small Causes Court. He retired in 1876. He spent the rest of his life for Aligarh College and the Muslims of South Asia.

Sir Syed's greatest achievement was his Aligarh Movement, which was primarily an educational venture. He established Gulshan School at Muradabad in 1859, Victoria School at Ghazipur in 1863, and a scientific society in 1864. When Sir Syed was posted at Aligarh in 1867, he started the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental School in the city. Sir Syed got the opportunity to visit England in 1869-70. During his stay, he studied the British educational system and appreciated it. On his return home he decided to make M. A. O. High School on the pattern of British boarding schools. The School later became a college in 1875. The status of University was given to the college after the death of Sir Syed in 1920. M. A. O. High School, College and University played a big role in the awareness of the Muslims of South Asia.

Unlike other Muslim leaders of his time, Sir Syed was of the view that Muslims should have friendship with the British if they want to take their due rights. To achieve this he did a lot to convince the British that Muslims were not against them. On the other hand, he tried his best to convince the Muslims that if they did not befriend the British, they could not achieve their goals. Sir Syed wrote many books and journals to remove the misunderstandings between Muslims and the British. The most significant of his literary works were his pamphlets "Loyal Muhammadans of India" and "Cause of Indian Revolt". He also wrote a commentary on the Bible, in which he attempted to prove that Islam is the closest religion to Christianity.

Sir Syed asked the Muslims of his time not to participate in politics unless and until they got modern education. He was of the view that Muslims could not succeed in the field of western politics without knowing the system. He was invited to attend the first session of the Indian National Congress and to join the organization but he refused to accept the offer. He also asked the Muslims to keep themselves away from the Congress and predicted that the party would prove to be a pure Hindu party in the times to come. By establishing the Muhammadan Educational Conference, he provided Muslims with a platform on which he could discuss their political problems. Sir Syed is known as the founder of Two-Nation Theory in the modern era.

In the beginning of 1898 he started keeping abnormally quiet. For hours he would not utter a word to friends who visited him. Medical aid proved ineffective. His condition became critical on 24th of March. On the morning of March 27, a severe headache further worsened it. He expired the same evening in the house of Haji Ismail Khan, where he had been shifted 10 or 12 days earlier. He was buried the following afternoon in the compound of the Mosque of Aligarh College. He was mourned by a large number of friends and admirers both within and outside South Asia.

I've read the first one. About Aibak.

Anything about Mahmood Ghaznavi? I like to read about him.

Conquests of Mahmud of Ghazni

Mahmud Ghaznavi [979-1030]



One of the most controversial personalities in the history of South Asia, Mahmud Ghaznavi is known as one of the greatest conquerors the world has ever seen. He was one of the very few leaders who were never defeated in a battlefield. Born in 979, Mahmud became the Sultan of Ghazni in 998. He inherited the small state of Ghazni from his father Subuktigin, and turned it into an empire that lasted for about a century. He was a brave man and use to take part in all the battles his forces fought. Though he was interested in extending his empire toward Central Asia, the maneuverings of the Hindu rulers of Punjab forced him to invade South Asia. He came to South Asia seventeen times and went back to Ghazni every time with a great victory. He fought against the strong forces of Jaipal, Annadpal, Tarnochalpal, Kramta and the joint forces of Hindu Rajas and Maharajas but all of them were forced to flee away from the battlefield due to Mahmud's war strategy as a general. After the conquest of Multan and Lahore, Mahmud made Punjab a part of his empire in 1021.

Unlike other great conquerors like Alexander and Chengez Khan, Mahmud did not leave the areas conquered to the mercy of his soldiers. After becoming the first Muslim ruler to conquer Northern Punjab, he consolidated his rule in the area and established his provincial headquarters at Lahore. He established law and order in the areas that he ruled, giving special attention to the people he ruled. The department of police and post were efficient. His judicial system was very good as everybody was equal before the law and justice was the order of the day.

Mahmud was also a great patron of learning. His court was full of scholars including giants like Firdosi the poet, Behqi the historian and Al-Biruni the versatile scholar. It is said that he used to spend four hundred thousand golden Dinars on scholars. He invited the scholars from all over the world and was thus known as an abductor of scholars. Under Mahmud, Ghazni became one of the most important and beautiful cities of the Islamic world. It was the city of mosques, madrasas and libraries. He also established a Museum in Ghazni. During his rule, Lahore also became a great center of learning and culture. Lahore was called 'Small Ghazni'. Saad Salman, a poet of those times, has written about the academic and cultural life of Lahore.

Mahmud was also a deeply religious man. He himself wrote a book on Fiqh. He had respect for other religions. A large number of Hindus lived in Ghazni, and they enjoyed religious freedom. One of his commanders named Tilak was a Hindu. A number of soldiers in his army were also Hindus. Mahmud attacked the Hindu Temples in India because of political and not religious reasons.

Mahmud Ghaznavi died on April 30 1030.

Al-Biruni [973-1038]



Abu Rehan Al-Biruni was born in 973 in a village called Barun in Khwarizm (modern Khiva). He spent his early life under the patronage of Khwarizm Shah. He then moved to the court of Qabus in Tabaristan and finally became a part and parcel of the court of Mahmud Ghaznavi. He came to South Asia along with the troops of Mahmud and stayed in the area for a long time.

The great Muslim traveler is known for his scholarship in the fields of Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Sanskrit, Mathematics, Geography and Astronomy. He wrote 14 books amongst which 'Kitab-ul-Hind' gained the most popularity. Other important books are the 'Chronology of the Ancient Nations', 'Tafhim', 'Qanun-ul-Masudi' (astronomy) etc. During his stay in South Asia he learned Sanskrit and studied the Hindu society and religion from a sociological point of view. He was the first Muslim to write about the Hindu society. His book 'Kitab-ul-Hind' is considered an important source of knowledge concerning the history and society of South Asia during the early eleventh century. In the book he has given a detailed account of the geography, literature, philosophy, customs, laws and religious believes of Hindus. His research convinced him that there is a marked difference between Hindus and Muslims and that they are two different nations that have almost nothing in common.

He compared the equality and brotherhood of the Muslim society with the inequality of the Hindu caste system and deprecated the filthy customs of the Hindus in contrast to decency and cleanliness of the Muslims. In 'Kitab-ul-Hind' he wrote, "In all manners and usage they differ from us to such a degree as to frighten their children with us, with our dress, and our ways and customs. They declare us to be the devil's breed, and our doings as the very opposite of all that is good and proper". Al-Biruni, to many, is the real founder of the two-nation theory in South Asia.

Muhammad bin Qasim [695-715]



Muhammad bin Qasim was orphaned as a child and thus the responsibility of his upbringing fell upon his mother. She supervised his religious instruction herself, and hired different teachers for his worldly education. It was the uncle, Hajjaj bin Yousaf, who taught him the art of governing and warfare.

Qasim was an intelligent and cultured young man who at the age of fifteen was considered by many to be one of his uncle's greatest assets. As a show of faith in his nephew's abilities, Hajjaj married his daughter to Qasim. At the age of sixteen, he was asked to serve under the great general, Qutayba bin Muslim. Under his command Muhammad bin Qasim displayed a talent for skilful fighting and military planning. Hajjaj's complete trust in Qasim's abilities as a general became even more apparent when he appointed the young man as the commander of the all-important invasion on Sindh, when he was only seventeen years old. Muhammad bin Qasim proved Hajjaj right when he, without many problems, managed to win all his military campaigns. He used both his mind and military skills in capturing places like Daibul, Raor, Uch and Multan. History does not boast of many other commanders who managed such a great victory at such a young age.

Besides being a great general, Muhammad bin Qasim was also an excellent administrator. He established peace and order as well as a good administrative structure in the areas he conquered. He was a kind hearted and religious person. He had great respect for other religions. Hindu and Buddhist spiritual leaders were given stipends during his rule. The poor people of the land were greatly impressed by his policies and a number of them embraced Islam. Those who stuck to their old religions erected statues in his honor and started worshiping him after his departure from their land.

Muhammad bin Qasim was known for his obedience to the ruler. Walid bin Abdul Malik died and was succeeded by his younger brother Suleman as the Caliph. Suleman was an enemy of Hajjaj and thus ordered Qasim back to the kingdom. Qasim knew of the animosity between the two. He was aware that due to this enmity, he would not be well treated. He could have easily refused to obey the Caliph's orders and declare his independence in Sindh. Yet he was of the view that obeying ones ruler is the duty of a general and thus he decided to go back to the center. Here he became a victim to party politics. He was put behind bars where he died at age of twenty. Many historians believe that had he been given a few more years, he would have conquered the entire South Asian region.

Muhammad Ghuri [1160-1206]

Muizz-ud-din Muhammad bin Sam, commonly known as Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Ghuri is one of the key persons who played a significant role in the establishment of Muslim rule in North India. An ambitious person, Muhammad Ghuri wanted to extend his rule towards South Asia. He took the small state of Ghazni from his brother Ghiyas-ud-din Muhammad bin Sam and turned it into an empire by conquering vast territories. First he captured the area ruled by the Ghaznavids and later on extended his rule to North India and Bengal. He was an able general and a brave soldier. He never let a temporary defeat stand in his way.

After his defeat in the first battle of Tarain in 1191 at the hands of Prithvi Raj Chauhan, ruler of Delhi and Ajmer, he spent a complete year preparing for war. He came back in 1192 and defeated Raj Chauhan in the second battle of Tarain. He was the first Muslim ruler to conquer Delhi and establish a Muslim rule in India.

Muhammad Ghuri was a loyal brother. He refrained from declaring his independence in South Asia, knowing that it would result in civil war between the two brothers. Till the death of Ghiyas-ud-din Muhammad bin Sam in 1202, Ghuri never considered himself anything but a general in his brother's army. After every victory he would send the best of the looted items to his elder brother in Firuz Koh. Ghiyas-ud-din reciprocated by never interfering in the affairs of his younger brother. Thus they were each able to concentrate on their own responsibilities. As a result, Muhammad Ghuri managed to push permanent Muslim rule much further east than Mahmud Ghaznavi did.

In 1206, Ghuri had to travel to Lahore to crush a revolt. On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan halted at Damik near Jehlum. He was killed while offering his evening prayers. Many think that the murderer was an Ismaili. However, some historians believe that the murderer belonged to the warrior Ghakkar tribe that resided in the area. He was buried where he fell and his tomb has recently been renovated. Muhammad Ghuri is remembered as an empire builder and is justly called the founder of the Muslim Empire in Indo-Pakistan.

I am witness to that. I myself know a few people whom he invited from other places to live in Ghazni.

Very nice post! I'll read it with more time on my hand, Insha'Allah.

Do you have anything about the Queen's a.k.a wives of the Badshah's?

ritscraker. wery nice information good you brought in that raziya sultana, couse many dont know that india had a muslim female ruler once.


just a note into the babur segment.
babur invaded india or made claim on india couse his forefather timur the lame had placed the lodhis there, and as the decent of timur, babur claimed the kingdom for himself, thus now the sayyedis ruled india and they wouldnt give away theyr kingdom easily.

Really ?!?!?!? GlaD to hear that Muslim Famle Leaders had that Qualities . I am feeling SO Proud



Now I feeling so bashed that in few Muslim societies like Pakistani ,they consider it a shame if a woman go out to work for HER survival. I think we shud quote this great LaDy ,atleast she is an inspiration for ME . If MAN can saveguard and rule the throne so can a Woman .

i actually sat still and read through the whole thing. Achievement of the year.
This thread has been extremely insightful and very interesting

great work ritz

Zengy? Nooruddin? Salauddin?

Crred, I didnt find any reference for Zengy, and NoorUddin. Can you post their biographies if you find something?

Being myself proud Syed, lets switch gear towards my passion, Sufism.
Biography Source


SHEIKH SALIM CHISHTY

A progeny of Sheikh Fariduddin Gunj Shakar, he was born in Delhi and came to Sirhind from Fateehpur Sikri and completed his exoteric education there. In 962 A.H, he made a pilgrimage to Makkah and Madina, toured the cities of Arabia, Persia and other lands, benefited from association with holy men and people of excellence there and performed many great feats. On his return to the sub-continent, he became a disciple of Sheikh Ibrahim Chishti, who made him one of his lieutenants and granted him permission to make his own disciples. Secluding himself in one of his the hills of Fatehpur Sikri, he got busy in the worship of Allah. He exhorted his disciples and other visitors to undergo strenuous religious exercises. Kings and nobles had great respect and regard for him. Prominent among these were Emperor Akbar and Sher Shah Suri, specially Akbar, who was immensely attached to him. Akbar had no issue and so he requested him to pray for one and it is said that it was because of his prayer that a son was born to him and was named Salim after the saint. This very Prince Salim later ascended the throne of Delhi under the title of Jahangir. He died in Fatehpur Sikri and was buried in the tomb whose foundation had earlier been laid by himself. The then king erected a very beautiful edifice over it and also built a mosque adjoining it.

SHAH ABDUL LATIF BHITAI
Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai belonged to a well known family of Syeds. Early in life, he migrated to Kotri from Bala Haveli and, then, in the tradition of holy men, set out in search of truth and embarked on extensive travels for getting acquainted with saintly persons. He journeyed to Multan, Jaisalmir, Lasbela, Makran, Kutch and the Kathiawar region and drew an inspiration from religious personages. He lived in a very important period of the political history of Sind. He was a storehouse of knowledge and wisdom, and in his famous poetical works Shah Jo Risalo, he was expatiated with abandon on mysteries and revelations. He was a poet of love. He showed people the way to nearness of Allah and warmed their hearts with the love of Holy Prophet of Allah (peace be upon him). He gave mankind the message of compassion, large-heartedness, vision, and love. During his time, a great controversy was raging among the religious scholars of Sind over such matters as lineage and caste. He, therefore, waged a war against such misleading concepts and also eradicated many un-Islamic practices. He selected a site near Kotri and founded a new settlement there. The place came to be known as "Bhit Shah", where his grave is also situated and is visited by the populace.

Lal Shahbaz Qalandar.


He belonged to syed family. He learned the Holy Qur'an with great dedication and devotion and acquired knowledge of other religious disciplines and, thus, became a profound scholar. All exoteric and esoteric knowledge was gathered in his person. He had a very long life during which Ghznavi rule ended and Ghuris came to power. He became a disciple of Hazrat Bahauddin Zakaria Multani who made him his lieutenant and also granted him permission to make disciples. He acquired exoteric knowledge from Haba Ibrahim Karhalai also and received numerous blessings by sitting in the company of Hasrat Fariduddin Ganj Shakr and Sheikh sadruddin Aarif. He met Bu Ali Shah Qalandar and received spiritual blessing from him as well. Because of his accociation with a good many Godly people, he attained a high spiritual status.. He came to Sindh on the instructions of Bu Ali Shah Qalandar and made Sehwan his headquarters. A large number of people benefited by their association with him. many wayward women repented and asked for Allah's forgiveness for their past deeds and many men of loose character became virtuous. His grave, in Sehwan (Sindh), is visited by the elite as well as the masses.

SHEIKH FARIDUDDIN MASOOD GUNJ SHAKAR


Sheikh Fariduddin Gunj Shakar's lineage goes back with Hazrat Umar Farooq (may Allah be pleased with him). He completed the study of all the disciplines of knowledge and the arts at Multan and it was there that he met Hazrat Qubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, who recognized his latent potential and took him to Delhi where he attained the highest pinnacle of sainthood through his in 595 A.H, also in Delhi, he got from his spiritual guide his lieutenancy as well permission to make his own disciples. Thereafter, he went to Pakpatan where he stayed permanently. He had a meeting with Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti as well. Rulers of his time presented themselves before him. Sultan Nasiruddin met him during his visit to Ooch and Multan. Sultan Ghayasuddin Balban ascended the throne because of his blessings. Several spiritual leaders and saints became his disciples. He was an embodiment of nobility of character. Throughout his life he remained and ascetic. He used to give away whatever he received in Allah's way. But with all his asceticism he ruled over the hearts of people. His grave, in Pakistan is a place of pilgrimage for the elite as well as the common man.

SACHAL SARMAST
In the Native State of Khairpur, some distance from the station Ranipur, is a village called Daraza. In this old and holy place was born Sachal who is called "the Intoxicated," Hazrat Hafiz Abdul Wahab Sachchal Sarmast was a renowned saint, Sufi and poet of Sind. His lineage goes back to Hazrat Umar Farooq (may Allah be pleased with him ). He was called Sachchal because he always spoke the truth. Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai saw when he was a boy and beckoning him to come near and foretold of a great spiritual future that awaited him. After the death of Shah Latif, Sachchal Sarmast obtained the robe of lieutenancy from his successor, Mian Sakhi Qubool Mohammad. At the age of 14, he gained proficiency in Arabic and Persian. `He had a kind and generous disposition. He was also a poet of seven languages. Every year, numerous devotees pay homage to him on the occasion of his death anniversary. His grave is in Daraza Sharif.

SULTAN-UL-MASHAIKH MAHBOOB-E-ILLAHI KHAWAJA NIZAMUDDIN AULIA


His forefathers had come to he subcontinent from Bokhara. He completed his education in Delhi, and,in 655 A.H, presented himself before Baba Farid Gunj Shakar at Pak Pattan and entered his circle of disciples, became his lieutenant and was permitted to make his own disciples. During his time seven (7) different Kings led Delhi, from time to time. Sultan Alauddin Khilji had two sons become nobles and court ministers began to throng to him. This annoyed him greatly and he wanted to go into seclusion but gave up the idea on the advice o Of a holy man. Because of his grace and blessings, an all-pervading revolution took place in the society. Thousands became his disciples and their moral and character attained purity and honesty. He fell ill in 725 A.H. When the illness became more serious, Sultan Muhammad Tuglaq sent the royal physician to attend on him. He looked at the physician in silence and told him in a feeble voice that he knew his death was near. His grave in Delhi, is visited by the populace.

Hey Ritz,

Very good thread. Very interesting,

^ yes....good information indeed'

I dunno why in my history class in pakistan...they taught me about k2...and stuff like that....they never teach us about wars and our muslim leaders! ahhh~


I am gonna read this when I am bored! hehe' its too long though!

A very good thread brother.

More on the great Sufis please. Hazrat Pir Mehr Ali Shah of Golra Shareef or Hazrat Pir Jamat Ali Shah of Alipur Shareef to start with.

It is good effort. it was required as most of yougster these days know little about our past

[quote=RitzCracker,Sep 29 2004, 11:59 PM]
Waves after waves of Muslim armies invaded India -----

Muslims are not invaded, they came to help the muslims in sindh when sindh rulers are doing crimes agaist muslim women.

Invasion is like rusia on Afghanistan, East india co. in India, Israel in palestine while muslims came to india they ruled here they married here they worked for Islam and died here. They didn't ran from this country. The didn't send the money or gold or diamonds to their countries like East india co. did. They didn't think about their families. They started education, musjids and make tremendous stuff to establish the islamic state (Not 100%) like Aurang Zaib. We have to tell the history the way it needs to tell not like RSS minded people , muslims Invaded in the past so we need to Invade the Indian muslims, their education, business, every degree where ever their is a chance!!!!!

Ibne qaasim Ibney qaasim
Aik awaaz pey tu aya thaa

Pom
Khirad ki guthiyaaN suljha chuka maiN
Meray Maula mujhay saheb-e-junooN kar dey